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The Early Generations: God revealed the foundations of faith and the special mission of the Jewish people to our forefathers and mothers. Abraham was born in 1948 (according to the Jewish calendar, which counts from the creation of Adam and Eve). In 2238, his grandson Jacob, towards the end of his life, traveled with his children and grandchildren to Egypt, where his son Joseph was the vizier. After Joseph and his brothers died, the Egyptians enslaved the Israelites. The enslavement lasted about 120 years. Thanks to their faith that God would redeem them from Egypt and bring them to the good Land He had promised their ancestors, the Israelites preserved their identity, and were even fruitful. In fact, they grew to be a nation with six hundred thousand men in its army. (For more details, see ch. 2 above.)
Moses and the Giving of the Torah: In 2448, on the 15th of Nissan, God took the Israelites out of Egypt. Later that year, on the 7th of Sivan, they heard the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. Moses remained on the mountain for another forty days, while he received more of the Torah and the Tablets of the Covenant. During the forty years the Israelites wandered in the desert, Moses continued receiving the Torah from God and sharing it with his students and the rest of the nation. Towards the end of his life, Moses wrote out twelve copies of the completed Torah, one for each of the twelve tribes.
Joshua and the Elders: Following the death of Moses in 2489, his loyal disciple Joshua son of Nun became the leader. Under his leadership, the Israelites conquered the Land and divided it among the tribes. For almost four hundred years after Joshua died, the elders of each tribe continued transmitting the Torah from generation to generation. This was the period of the Judges, a turbulent time of highs and lows. Enemies would attack the Israelites and subjugate them; when the Israelites repented, God would provide them with a Judge who led them to victory against their enemies. The Judges included Othniel the son of Kenaz, Ehud son of Gera, Deborah the Prophet, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson. During the period of the Judges, the Tabernacle was in Shiloh, in the tribal portion of Ephraim.
Samuel and the Monarchic Period:
Four hundred years after the Exodus, a great prophet arose named Samuel. He judged the Israelites, increased the Torah's influence, and trained many students to become prophets. During his time, the people requested a king. In response, Samuel anointed Saul from the tribe of Benjamin. This was the beginning of the United Monarchy. Later, after King Saul sinned, Samuel anointed David from the tribe of Judah to rule in his stead. Samuel also presented David with the plans to build the Temple, which would be built by David’s son Solomon.
Following King Solomon’s death in 2965, the kingdom split in two. The Kingdom of Judah ruled over a minority of the tribes. It was under the rule of Davidic kings, with its capital in Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Israel ruled over most of the tribes. It had a variety of monarchs, and was based in Samaria. The splitting of the kingdom is seen as the first stage of the collapse of self-rule. Over two centuries later, it ultimately led to the destruction of the Kingdom of Israel at the hands of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 3206. Over a century after that, the First Temple and the Kingdom of Judah were destroyed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 3339.
The Second Temple Period: The Judaeans were exiled to Babylonia, which became the Jewish center for approximately seventy years. Then, King Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylonia and permitted the Jews to return to the Land and build the Second Temple. Zerubbabel led the Jews who returned. However, few Jews took advantage of this opportunity, so the building of the Temple was delayed. (During the years of Persian rule, the Purim miracle took place in the Persian capital of Shushan; see 39:5 below.) Eventually, the returnees settled in and completed the building of the Second Temple.
Ezra the Scribe was active during this period, which saw the transition from the prophets to the Sages. He had a long-lasting impact on the nation, and was considered the most important leader after Moses. Ezra headed the Men of the Great Assembly, the court of 120 Sages which included the last of the prophets. They were responsible for deciding which books would be included in Tanakh. The Sages founded houses of study and trained many students. They also framed much of the Oral Law, putting safeguards and enactments in place to ensure the Torah's continuity.
In the middle of the Second Temple period, houses of study grew and study of the Oral Torah increased. This was largely in the wake of the successful Hasmonean rebellion (Maccabees). The Syrian-Greeks had made decrees against Judaism and defiled the Temple, which led the Hasmoneans to rebel. After their military victory, they wished to rededicate the Temple and light the Menora. However, they could find only one container of pure oil, which was enough to last for only a day. Miraculously though, the oil lasted for eight days. To commemorate the miracle of the oil, the purification of the Temple, and the miraculous victory of the Hasmoneans, the holiday of Ĥanuka was established in 3596 (164 BCE). For more about Ĥanuka, see ch. 38 below.
The Tanna’itic Period and the Writing of the Mishna:
Originally, it was prohibited to write down the Oral Torah. While it was permissible for scholars to write brief notes for themselves, these were not collected into books to be shared with students. However, about 150 years after the destruction of the Temple in 3830 (70 CE), Rabbi Judah the Prince and the Sages of his time realized that not only were most of the Jews dispersed in exile, but the laws were increasing in volume and complexity and becoming difficult to remember. Therefore, they permitted writing down the Oral Torah. With the help of colleagues and students, Rabbi Judah the Prince redacted the six orders of the Mishna, a comprehensive outline of the Oral Torah at that time. It included the most important disagreements of the Tanna’im, the Sages who lived from the end of the Second Temple period until the redaction of the Mishna, and was completed in 3978 (218 CE).
The greatest Tanna’im included Hillel and Shammai, Rabban Yoĥanan ben Zakkai (who lived through the destruction of the Second Temple and enacted many laws meant to preserve the memory and values of the Temple), and Rabbi Akiva (who was martyred during the Bar Kokhba rebellion).
The Amora’ic Period and the Writing of the Talmud:
With the completion of the Mishna, the period of the Amora’im began. These were the Sages who worked hard to analyze, explain, clarify, and expand upon the Mishna. Their teachings were collected in the Talmud (also known as Gemara) – first the Jerusalem Talmud, and later the Babylonian Talmud. The latter was finished about three hundred years after the Mishna, in 4260 (500 CE). Famous Amora’im included R. Yoĥanan and Resh Lakish; Rav and Shmuel; Abaye and Rava; and Ravina and Rav Ashi. During this period, Babylonia became the primary Torah center.
At the same time the Mishna and Talmud were being compiled, the Sages also composed commentaries on Tanakh. These commentaries, called “midrashim,” include the halakhic works Mekhilta, Sifra, and Sifrei, and non-halakhic works such as Midrash Rabba and Midrash Tanĥuma. Other material was transmitted more discreetly and included the kabbalistic teachings which formed the basis of the Zohar.
The rabbis who lived from the Second Temple period through the Amora’ic period are referred to as “Sages.” The standard Hebrew term for them is Ĥazal, an acronym that means “our Sages of blessed memory.”
The Savora’im: The sages who followed the Amora’im were referred to as Savora’im, who were active until approximately 4349 (589 CE). This time period was one in which the Jews were constantly persecuted. The legacy of the Savora’im was the final redaction of the words of the Sages in the Babylonian Talmud and other rabbinic works.
Ge’onim: The following time period is referred to as the Ge’onic period. It lasted approximately 450 years, from 4349 to 4798 (539-1038 CE). During this time, Babylonia was still the center of Judaism, and the Torah leaders there – called Ge’onim – were the leaders of world Jewry. Jews from all over the world turned to them with their halakhic questions. (It was during this time that a serious, long-lasting dispute began between rabbinic Jews and Karaites. (The Karaites were Jews who did not accept the Oral Torah.) The Ge’onim produced responsa, halakhic rulings, and commentaries on the Talmud, although they were less prolific than those who came before and after them. Well-known Ge’onim included Rabbi Yehudai Gaon, Rabbi Saadia Gaon, Rabbi Sherira Gaon, and his son Rabbi Hai Gaon. The death of Rabbi Hai marked the end of the Ge’onic period.
The Rishonim: The next period also lasted about 450 years, from 4800 to 5252 (1040-1492 CE). During this time, the Jewish world continued to expand. Large communities could now be found in Spain, Ashkenaz (Germany and France), North Africa, and Yemen. The sages who lived during this medieval period are referred to as the Rishonim (the earlier ones). They wrote commentaries on both the written Torah and the Talmud. Rashi (an acronym for Rabbi Shlomo Yitzĥaki), who lived in northern France, wrote the most important commentaries on the Torah and the Talmud.
The Rishonim of Spain also wrote many important Torah books. The most important halakhic work was by Maimonides (known in Hebrew as Rambam, an acronym for Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon). This book, Mishneh Torah, organizes all the mitzvot and the laws pertaining to them, both theoretical and practical. A very influential work of Jewish thought, the Kuzari, was penned by Rabbi Yehuda Halevi, who was both a philosopher and a poet. Another great Spanish rabbi was Naĥmanides (known in Hebrew as Ramban, an acronym for Rabbi Moshe ben Naĥman). He immigrated to the Land of Israel in his old age, and his main disciple was Rashba (an acronym for Rabbi Shlomo ben Aderet).
During the time of the Rishonim, two halakhic schools of law and custom began to emerge: Sephardic and Ashkenazic. The Sephardic tradition is based largely on Rif (an acronym for Rabbi Yitzĥak Alfasi) and Rambam. The Ashkenazic tradition is based largely on Tosafot (a Talmudic commentary) and Rosh (an acronym for Rabbi Asher ben Yeĥiel).
Rabbi Yosef Karo served as a bridge between the Rishonim and the Aĥaronim. He was born in Spain and moved to the Land of Israel, where he died in Safed in 5335 (1575 CE). Rabbi Yosef Karo wrote the Shulĥan Arukh, summarizing all of practical halakha. After it was annotated by a Polish rabbi called Rema (an acronym for Rabbi Moshe Isserles), the Shulĥan Arukh became the central halakhic work for both Sephardim and Ashkenazim. Printing spread through Europe around this time, and the Shulĥan Arukh was one of the first major Jewish books to be printed.
The Aĥaronim: The subsequent rabbis are called the Aĥaronim (the later ones). During this time, spanning from the writing of the Shulĥan Arukh about 450 years ago through the present, tens of thousands of rabbinic works have been published in a variety of areas. These include biblical commentaries, commentaries on the Talmud and halakhic works, responsa, and books of Jewish thought, including Kabbala and Ĥasidut. Many rabbis are referred to by the names of their books. The rabbinic legalists who wrote commentaries on the Shulĥan Arukh include Magen Avraham, Taz (an acronym for Turei Zahav), Shakh (an acronym for Siftei Kohen), Ĥida (whose most important work is Birkei Yosef), and Mishna Berura. Authors of responsa include Radbaz, Noda Bi-Yehuda, and Ĥatam Sofer.
Towards the beginning of this period, an amazing individual named Rabbi Yitzĥak Luria revealed and explained many mystical matters. Known as the holy Ari, he died in Safed in 5332 (1572 CE). Other luminaries of Jewish thought and Kabbalah are Maharal (Rabbi Judah Loew), who was born in Poland and died in Prague in 5369 (1609 CE); Ohr HaĤayim (Rabbi Ĥayim ibn Attar), born in Morocco and died in Jerusalem in 5503 (1743 CE); Ramĥal (Rabbi Moshe Ĥayim Luzzatto), born in Italy and died in Acre in 5506 (1746 CE); Rashash (Rabbi Sar Shalom Sharabi), born in Yemen and died in Jerusalem in 5537 (1777 CE); and the Gaon (genius) of Vilna, a master of all areas of Torah study, who was born in Poland and died in Vilna in 5558 (1797 CE).
In the 1700s, Rabbi Israel Ba’al Shem Tov and his students started the Ĥasidut movement, which drew upon mysticism and succeeded in drawing the masses closer to tradition and reigniting their religious enthusiasm. (The Ba’al Shem Tov died in 5520, or 1760 CE.)
In Israel, the greatest sage of recent generations was Rabbi Avraham Yitzchak HaKohen Kook, whose legacy includes many works of Jewish thought relating to the return of the Jewish people to the Land of Israel in modern times. (Rav Kook died in 5695, or 1935 CE.) Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 5648 (1948 CE), the center of Torah has returned from the diaspora to the Land of Israel.
